In ancient times, the state of Ghandhara occupied the Vale of Peshawar and adjoining areas. This kingdom was important because of its strategic location at the eastern end of the Khyber Pass. Gandhara was annexed by the Persian Achaemenian Empire in the early 6th century BC and remained a Persian satrapy until 327 BC. The region then passed successively under Greek, Indian, Indo-Bactrian, Sakan, Parthian, and Kushan rule.

Muslim rule was first brought to the region by the Turks, whose ruler, Sebüktigin, gained control of Peshawar in AD 988. His son, Mahmud of Ghazna, invaded northern India several times between 1001 and 1027 and brought a large area of the present province into the boundaries of his Ghaznavid empire. Beginning in the late 12th century, the region was held successively by the Ghurids, by various Muslim Afghan dynasties, and then by the Mughals. After the invasion of the Iranian ruler Nadir Shah in 1738, the territory remained under a loose form of Afghan Durrani rule. Beginning about 1818, invading Sikhs from the Punjab region of India increasingly secured control of the frontier territory until the coming of the British in 1849.

The northwestern frontier areas were annexed to India by the British after the Second Sikh War of 1849. The territories thenceforth formed a part of the Punjab until the North-West Frontier Province was created in 1901. After Pakistan attained independence in 1947, the region continued to exist as a separate Pakistani province. The inhabitants of the tribal territories, the westernmost area along the Afghanistan border, are not subject to the Pakistani legal code, however. During the 1980s the province was inundated by Afghan refugees seeking asylum from the Soviet occupation of their country.

The terrain of the North-West Frontier Province consists of mountain ranges, undulating submontane areas, and plains surrounded by hills. In the north the mountain ranges generally run north-south, while south of the Kabul River, which bisects the province from east to west, the ranges generally run east-west. The Hindu Kush region in the north, long noted for its scenic beauty, is divided by the Kunar River into two distinct ranges—the northern Hindu Kush and the Hindu Raj. Tirich Mir rises to 25,230 feet (7,690 m) and is the highest peak of the northern Hindu Kush. To the south of the Hindu Raj lies the rugged country of the Panjkora, Swat, and Kandia river basins. The Lesser Himalayas and the sub-Himalayas are situated in the eastern part of the province and form definite ranges broken by hilly country and small plains. The fertile Vale of Peshawar extends northward along the Kabul River. Though it covers less than one-tenth of the province's area, this region contains about one-half of its total population. The city of Peshawar lies in the western portion of the vale. West of Peshawar, the historic Khyber Pass is strategically important as the most easily negotiable route between Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent. South of the Kabul River lies the east-west-trending Safed Koh Range. The Kurram, Tochi, and Gumal rivers drain the province's southern region, and the Indus River forms part of the province's eastern border.

The North-West Frontier's climate varies with elevation. The mountain ranges experience cold winters and cool summers, while temperatures rise markedly toward the south. Precipitation over the province is variable but averages roughly 16 inches (400 mm) annually, with much of this occurring during the period from January to April.

The mountain slopes in the north of the province support stands of evergreen oak and pine. There are also extensive mountain grasslands. The hills to the south are sparsely covered with bushes, acacia, and grasses.

The North-West Frontier Province is inhabited mainly by the Pashtun, who are noted for their independence. The Pashtun comprise many tribes and clans, each taking great pride in its genealogy. Pashto is the main language in the province, except for some areas where Punjabi predominates, and virtually all the population is Muslim. Only a small part of the overall population is urban.

The North-West Frontier's economy is essentially agricultural, even though the mountainous terrain is not favourable to extensive cultivation. Irrigation is carried out on about one-third of the cultivated land. Wheat, corn (maize), sugarcane, and tobacco are the major crops. The province's principal industries are the manufacture and refining of sugar, the canning and preservation of fruits and vegetables, tobacco processing, and the manufacture of small arms and accessories. Other products are cotton textiles, cement, ghee (clarified butter), furniture, and milled grains.

The Pashtun tribal order is inherently resistant to social change, and educational progress in the province has been quite slow. The literacy rate among the total population is lower than that of Pakistan as a whole.

In the tribal areas on the province's western fringe, the Pashtun tribes are free to govern themselves according to their own customs. Political and military agents who are responsible to the central government have the power to award or withhold subsidies and to control entry into and departure from the tribal areas.

Peshawar lies on an east-west road that connects Kabul in Afghanistan to Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. A major north-south road traverses the province, and an east-west railway runs from the Afghanistan border through Peshawar to Lahore in Punjab province. A major airport is located in Peshawar.

Peshawar is the site of the University of Peshawar (1950), the Peshawar Museum, and other colleges and cultural institutes. Area, including federally administered tribal areas, 39,282 square miles (101,741 square km). Pop. (1998 est.) including federally administered tribal areas, 30 million.